Bicycle Accidents, Biomechanical, Engineering, and Legal Aspects

Jeffrey Broker, Ph.D., and Paul Hill

Table of Contents   (Back to book ordering page)

Part I
Introduction to Part I 3
Jeffrey P. Broker, Ph.D

Chapter 1: Bicycle Types, Bicycle Anatomy, and Bicycle Setup
Jeffrey P. Broker, Ph.D
1.1 Bicycles Types 9
1.2 Bicycle Anatomy 10
1.3 Bicycle Setup 16
A. Saddle height 16
B. Saddle fore-aft position 19
C. Crank length determination 21
D. Handlebar placement 22
Endnotes 23

Chapter 2: Bicycle Operating Characteristics
Jeffrey P. Broker, Ph.D.
2.1 Balance and Steering 25
A. Normal riding 25
B. Turning 26
C. Emergency steering 29
D. Destabilizing situations 32
E. Steering geometry, stability, and high speed shimmy 36
2.2 Bicycle Propulsion 39
A. Cycling equation of motion 39
B. Pedal forces 46
C. Gearing and cadence 48
2.3 Bicycle Braking 52
A. CPSC braking requirements for bicycle 53
B. Limits of braking and pitchover phenomenon 53
C. General guidelines for braking 63
Endnotes 66

Chapter 3: The Cycling Setting
Jeffrey P. Broker, Ph.D.
3.1 Where Cyclists Ride 69
3.2 Cycling Statistics: Use Patterns and Categorizing Accidents 71
3.3 Cycling on the Road: Characteristics that Affect Bicycle
Traffic Patterns 75
A. Bicycles as vehicles and three "special" rules for cyclists 75
B. Where to generally ride on roads, and what is
"practicable" 76
C. Managing parked cars 79
D. Intersections 83
E. Gutters, seams, railroad tracks, grates and various sharp edges 90
3.4 Staying Alive on the Roads versus Accident Causation
Analysis 94
Endnotes 95

Chapter 4: Principles of Bicycle Accident Reconstruction
Jeffrey P. Broker, Ph.D.
4.1 Identifying the Critical Questions and Issues 97
4.2 Comprehensive Fact Gathering: Assembling the Puzzle
Pieces 99
A. Accident reporting 99
B. Witness accounts 102
C. Physical evidence 105
D. Injury profiles 122
E. The accident scene 124
F. Supporting technical analyses 130
4.3 Summary of Accident Investigation Principles 133

Chapter 5: Crash Tests Involving Bicycles and Motor Vehicles
Jerry Eubanks, Jeffrey P. Broker, Ph.D., and Rusty Haight
5.1 Test Methods 136
5.2 Test Results 138
5.3 Video and film documentation 146
A. Initial contact and wrap characteristics 146
B. Airborne trajectories 148
C. Motor vehicle damage 149
D. Bicycle damage profiles 149
5.4 Using Pedestrian Throw Formulas to Analyze Bicyclist/Motor Vehicle Collisions 153
A. Throw formulas 153
B. Application of the formulas to cyclist/motor vehicle
collisions 156
5.4 Conclusion 159
Endnotes 160

Chapter 6: Cycling Injuries: Biomechanics, Frequency, and Form
Jeffrey P. Broker, Ph.D.
6.1 Injury Defined 162
6.2 Anatomical Planes and Directions 162
6.3 Acute versus Chronic Injuries 164
6.4 Specific Tissues Involved In Injury 166
A. Injuries to the skin 167
B. Injuries to bone and cartilage 167
C. Injuries to muscle, tendon, and ligament 170
D. Injuries to joints 171
E. Injuries to nerves 172
6.5 Injury Profiles in Cycling 172
A. Epidemiology 172
B. Injury mechanisms in specific cycling accidents 177
Endnotes 180

Chapter 7: Visual Behavior as Related to Bicycle Riders
Bernard S. Abrams, Ph.D. and Leslie Weintraub, Ph.D.
7.1 Methodology 184
A. How the human visual system functions 184
B. Other components of vision 186
7.2 Driver Visual Needs 190
A. Visual needs to discern bicyclists 190
B. The bicycle must be conspicuous 190
7.3 Visual Perception Related To Driving 195
A. Distance clues 195
B. Velocity judgments 195
C. Illumination clues 196
D. Atmospheric clues 197
7.4 Human Factors of Warning Devices 198
A. Human factors 198
B. Perception reaction 200
C. Brain versus computers 200
D. Warning devices of the future 201
E. Commentary 202
7.5 Why Traffic Control Devices for Bicyclists? 202
A. Vehicle operators belief 202
B. Bicyclists belief 202
C. Commentary 203
7.6 Sun Glare-Daylight Problems 203
A. Photochemical reaction 203
B. Roads 205
7.7 Conclusion 205
References 207
Appendices 208

Chapter 8: Safety Standards and Regulations in the Bicycle Industry
David A. Mitchell, P.E.
8.1 Regulations versus Standards 227
A. History 227
B. The differences between regulations and standards 230
8.2 The United States versus the World 230
A. United States influence in the world 231
B. World influence in the United States 231
8.3 Conclusions 231
Endnotes 232

Chapter 9: Bicycle Materials and Failure Mechanisms
David A. Mitchell, P.E.
9.1 History of Frame Materials 233
9.2 Modern Bicycle Design 233
A. Typical types of bicycles and their uses 233
B. Market position within types and uses of bicycles 234
9.3 Modern Materials of Frame Construction 234
A. Steel 234
B. Aluminum 235
C. Titanium 236
D. Composite materials 236
E. Comparison of materials 237
9.4 Modern Methods of Frame Manufacture 237
A. Brazing 238
B. Welding 239
C. Adhesive bonding 241
D. Composite frame building 241
9.5 Modern Materials of Component Manufacture 242
9.6 Failure Modes in Modern Designs 242
A. Mechanical overload 242
B. Stress concentration and surface defects 243
C. Fatigue 243
D. Corrosion 245
9.7 Failure Analysis Techniques 246
A. Visual examination 246
B. Dimensional measurement 246
C. Material identification 246
D. Mechanical properties 247
E. Metallographic examination 247
F. Fracture surface analysis 249
G. Techniques in non-metallic materials 250
9.8 Failure Avoidance 250
9.9 Conclusion 250
Endnotes 250

Part II
Introduction to Part II 253
Paul F. Hill

Chapter 10: Cyclist's Rights and Duties
Paul F. Hill
10.1 Maintaining a Proper Lookout 259
10.2 Right to Use the Road, Choice of Route, and Assumption
of the Risk 262
10.3 Riding as Near to the Right as Practicable 268
10.4 Two Abreast or Single File 277
10.5 Riding Double, Tandems, and Imputed Negligence 277
10.6 Equipment Requirements: Helmet Laws 282
10.7 Equipment Requirements: Lights and Reflectors 288
10.8 Equipment Requirements: Bell or Horn 295
10.9 Riding Under the Influence of Alcohol or Drugs 296
Endnotes 301

Chapter 11: Intersection Accidents
Paul F. Hill
11.1 Failure of Bicycle to Trip Signal 312
11.2 Driver Turning Left 313
11.3 Driver Passing or Meeting and Turning Right 316
11.4 Intersections with no Traffic Signs or Signals 318
11.5 Intersections with Stop Signs 319
11.6 Intersection with Traffic Signals 320
11.7 Cyclist Making Left Turn 321
11.8 Cyclist on Favored Street 321
11.9 Cyclist on Disfavored Street 323
11.10 Cyclist Entering or Crossing Roadway at Other than Intersection 326
11.11 Cyclist and Motor Vehicle Meeting, Including Wrong-Way Cyclist 331
11.12 Projecting Loads and Mirrors 336
11.13 Driver Opening Door into Path of Cyclist 339
11.14 Motor Vehicle Backing 341
11.15 Cyclist on Sidewalk, Crosswalk, Bicycle Lane or Path 342
Endnotes 352

Chapter 12: Cyclist in Collision with Bicycle or Pedestrian
Paul F. Hill
12.1 Bicycle-Bicycle Collisions 364
12.2 Bicycle-Pedestrian Collisions 368
Endnotes 373

Chapter 13: Accidents Caused by Dogs
Paul F. Hill
13.1 Background 377
13.2 Common Law and Statutes 378
13.3 Cases 379
13.4 Points to Remember 386
A. For the cyclist 386
B. For the attorney 386
Endnotes 386

Chapter 14: Accidents Caused by Defects in Street, Highway, Sidewalk, Path, Private Property, or Recreational Land
Paul F. Hill
Endnotes 455

Chapter 15: Products Liability
Paul F. Hill
15.1 Introduction 467
15.2 Brakes 468
15.3 Helmets 468
15.4 Grates 470
15.5 Frame and Fork 470
15.6 Toe Clips and Pedals 473
15.7 Lights and Reflectors 474
15.8 Negligent Assembly or Maintenance 474
15.9 Wheel Retention 476
15.10 Other product liability cases 477
Endnotes 478

Chapter 16: Insurance Considerations
Paul F. Hill
16.1 Introduction 481
16.2 "Through Being Hit By" and "Physical Contact" Construed 483
16.3 Uninsured/Underinsured and Hit-and-Run Coverage 486
16.4 No-Fault Automobile Insurance 490
16.5 Homeowners or Renters Personal Liability Coverage 492
Endnotes 494

Chapter 17: Signed Releases of Liability (Waivers)
Paul F. Hill
17.1 Introduction 497
17.2 Cases 499
17.3 Concluding Remarks 505
Endnotes 506

Chapter 18: The Uniform Vehicle Code and State Bicycle Statutes
Paul F. Hill
18.1 Introduction 509
18.2 Selected Uniform Vehicle Code Bicycle Provisions 510
18.3 Synopsis of State Statutes 515
Endnotes 540

Chapter 19: Regulatory Standards
Ross D. Petty
19.1 Introduction 547
19.2 Historical Overview of Bicycle Safety Standards 547
19.3 General Product Safety Requirements 550
A. Handlebars and steering system 551
B. Brakes 552
C. Audible warning devices 553
D. Nighttime equipment 554
19.4 Bicycle Helmet Safety Standards 559
19.5 Bicycle Advertising Safety Requirements 560
Endnotes 562

About the Authors 565
Index 569

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