Building Design and Construction Hazards

David MacCollum, P.E, and Richard Hughes, P.E.

Table of Contents  (Back to book ordering page)

Acknowledgments xvii
Foreword xxi
Preface xxiii

Part I, Ground Rules
Chapter 1: Nature of Hazards Theory of Hazard Prevention 3
1.1 Introduction 3
1.2 Hazard Definition 4
1.3 Types of Hazards 6
A. Natural environment 7
B. Mechanical 8
C. Electrical 9
D. Chemical 9
E. Radiant energy 9
F. Biological 10
G. Artificial intelligence 10
1.4 Management Dysfunctions that Accommodate Hazards 10
1.5 Hazards and the Law 12
Endnotes 16

Chapter 2: System Safety Engineering 17
2.1 Introduction 17
2.2 Illustration of a Systems Approach 18
A. Evolution of system safety 18
B. Feasibility of system safety 19
2.3 Environmental Concerns 20
2.4 Mathematical Analyses of System Safety 22
2.5 Reliability and Fault Tree Sequence 25
2.6 System Safety Standards 29
2.7 The Future of Safety 30
Endnotes 31
Additional Reading 33

Chapter 3: Pemise Liability 35
3.1 Introduction 35
3.2 Code References 36

Chapter 4: Regulatory Agencies 37
4.1 Introduction 37
4.2 Engineer Responsibilities 41
4.3 Code References 48

Chapter 5: Human Characteristics 49
5.1 Introduction 49
5.2 Technical Data on People 50
A. Depth perception 50
B. Hearing perception 51
C. The human response process 51
D. Memory 51
E. Visual reception 52
F. Visual acuity 52
G. Peripheral vision 53
H. Pedestrian characteristics 53
I. What constitutes a handicapped person 54
J. Code references and industry standards 54
5.4 Noise 54
A. What are the chances of injury or death? 56
B. Noise levels 57
C. How noise injuries can be prevented 58
D. Engineering controls 59
E. Administrative controls 59
F. History 61
G. Code references and industry standards 62
5.5 Dust 64
A. A human tragedy 65
B. What are the chances of injury or death? 65
C. Why dust hazards continue to occur 67
D. How dust hazards can be prevented 68
E. History 71
F. Code references and industry standards 71
Endnotes 74

Part II, Design Basic
Section A, Interior
Chapter 6: Means of Egress 79
6.1 Introduction 79
A. Case in point 81
B. Code references and industry standards 84
6.2 Slips and Falls on Floor Surfaces 86
A. Introduction 86
B. Case in point 89
C. Foot physiology 90
D. Code references and industry standards 91
6.3 Trips and Falls 94
A. Introduction 94
B. Case in point 96
C. Code references and industry standards 100
Endnotes 102

Chapter 7: Stairs, Steps, Ledges and Staircases 103
7.1 Introduction 103
7.2 Single Steps 105
7.3 Case in Point 105
7.3 Code References and Industry Standards 106

Chapter 8: Ramps 117
8.1 Introduction 117
8.2 Case in Point 118
8.3 Code References and Industry Standards 119

Chapter 9: Doors, Windows and Glass 123
9.1 Introduction 123
9.2 Allowable Glazing Materials 124
A. Laminated glass 124
B. Wired glass 125
C. Annealed glass 125
D. Heat-strengthened glass 125
E. Tempered glass 126
9.3 Case in Point 126
9.4 Code References and Industry Standards 127

Chapter 10: Chairs and Furniture 131
10.1 Chairs and Furniture 131
A. Introduction 131
B. Case in point 132
C. Code references and industry standards 132
10.2 Bathrooms, Showers and Vanities 136
A. Introduction 136
B. Case in point 136
C. Code references and industry standards 138

Chapter 11: Ceiling Heights, Signs, Protruding Objects and Head Clearance Awnings 143
11.1 Introduction 143
11.2 Case in Point 144
11.3 Code References and Industry Standards 146

Chapter 12: Electricity, Appliances, Kerosene Heaters, Heating Elements and Circuits 149
12.1 Introduction 149
A. Cases in point 152
B. What are the chances of injury or death? 152
C. Why electrocutions still occur 154
D. How secondary power hazards can be prevented 155
E. History 157
F. Code references and industry standards 157
12.2 Electric-Arc Welding 159
A. Typical occurrences 160
B. What are the chances of injury or death? 161
C. Why arc-welding is dangerous 162
D. Case in point 163
E. Regulations 163
F. Code references and industry standards 164

Chapter 13: Fences, Banisters, Balconies and Handrails 167
13.1 Introduction 167
13.2 Case in Point 170
13.3 Code References and Industry Standards 170

Chapter 14: Lighting and Emergency Lighting 173
14.1 Introduction 173
14.2 Case in Point 174
14.3 Code References and Industry Standards 174

Chapter 15: Sight Distance, Size, Contrast, Color and Light 179
15.1 Introduction 179
15.2 Examples 180
15.3 Code References and Industry Standards 182

Chapter 16: Elevators, Automatic Doors, Revolving Doors, Escalators and Conveyors 185
16.1 Introduction 185
16.2 Conveyors 186
A. Typical occurrences 189
B. What are the chances of injury or damage? 190
C. Why do we have so many injuries, product losses and down time from conveyors? 190
D. How can injury and damage be prevented? 191
E. History 196
F. Code references and industry standards 196
G. Representative litigation 202
16.3 Examples 203
A. Code references and industry standards 204

Chapter 17: Falling Objects 209
17.1 Introduction 209
17.2 Cases in Point 209
17.3 Chance of Injury or Death 211
A. Introduction 211
B. Why it keeps occurring 212
C. Injury prevention 212
17.4 History 215
17.5 Code References and Industry Standards 216
17.6 Patents 221
17.7 Representative Litigation 221

Chapter 18: Gases 225
18.1 Carbon Monoxide 225
18.2 Carbon Monoxide Poisoning 225
18.3 What are the Chances of Injury or Death? 226
18.4 Carbon Monoxide Poisoning Continues to Occur 229
18.5 How Carbon Monoxide can be Controlled? 231
18.6 History 233
18.7 Code References and Industry Standards 235
18.8 Representative Litigation 239

Chapter 19: Mold 241
19.1 Introduction 241
19.2 Code References 242

Chapter 20: Fires, Fire Safety, Explosions and Smoke Detectors 245
20.1 Introduction 245
20.2 Fire Prevention 246
A. Causes of fire 246
B. Case in point 248
C. What are the chances of injury or death? 249
D. How fires can be prevented 250
20.3 Fire Protection System Hazards 254
A. Carbon dioxide 254
B. Dry chemicals 254
C. Halon 254
D. Sprinkler and other water systems 254
E. Sources of ignition 254
F. Cause of fires 255
20.4 History 255
20.5 Code References and Industry Standards 257
20.6 Representative Litigation 259
Endnotes 264

Section B, Exterior
Chapter 21: Sidewalks, Parking Lots and Parking Garages 267
21.1 Introduction 267
21.2 Case in Point 271
21.3 Code References and Industry Standards 271

Chapter 22: Maintenance-Snow, Ice, Grease, Oil and Floor Cleaning 275
22.1 Introduction 275
22.2 Case in Point 275
22.3 Code References 276

Chapter 23: Ice Guards and Roof Drains, and Site Drainage 279
23.1 Introduction 279
23.2 Case in Point 279
23.3 Code References 282

Chapter 24: Stadiums, Grandstands and Bleachers 285
24.1 Introduction 285
24.2 Case in Point 285
24.3 Code References and Industry Standards 288

Chapter 25: Street Grates, Open Grid Floors and Joints in Walking Surfaces 291
25.1 Introduction 291
25.2 Case in Point 291
25.3 Code References and Industry Standards 293

Chapter 26: Playgrounds and Swimming Pools 295
26.1 Playgrounds 295
26.2 Swimming Pools 296
26.3 Case in Point 296
26.4 Code References and Industry Standards 298

Part III, Construction
Chapter 27: Construction In Occupied Buildings 303
27.1 Construction Management 303
A. Cases in point 305
B. What are the chances of injury or death when a CM fails to address safety? 308
C. Why is poor contract management becoming a significant factor in workplace injury? 309
D. How can contract operations be made safe? 311
E. History 315
F. Code references and industry standards 315
G. Representative litigation 320
27.2 Unsafe Equipment Control Systems 321
A. Dangerous occurrences 323
B. What are the chances of injury or death? 325
C. Why unsafe control systems exist 326
D. How injury can be prevented 327
E. History 330
F. Code references and industry standards 330
G. Representative litigation 333
H. Back to the future 334

Chapter 28: Mobile Equipment 337
28.1 Large Truck Hazards 338
A. Case in point 339
B. Dangerous situations 340
C. What are the chances of injury or death? 342
D. Why are so many crashes occuring? 343
E. How can heavy truck and car crashes be prevented? 347
F. History 351
G. Observations 352
H. Code references and industry standards 352
28.2 Forklift 355
A. Cases in point 356
B. What are the chances of injury or death? 358
C. Why injury or death occurs 359
D. How it can be prevented 360
E. Code references and industry standards 362
F. Patents 367
G. Representative litigation 367
H. Observations 369
28.3 Blind Zones on Moving Equipment 369
A. Cases in point 371
B. What are the chances of injury or death? 372
C. Why are people caught in blind zones? 373
D. How blind zones can be prevented 376
E. Other hazard prevention measures 377
F. Code references and industry standards 379
G. Patents 382
28.4 Unsafe Equipment Control Systems 383
A. Dangerous occurrences 384
B. What are the chances of injury or death? 387
C. Why unsafe control systems exist 389
D. How injury can be prevented 390
E. History 393
F. Code references and industry standards 394
Endnotes 396

Chapter 29: Construction Methods 397
29.1 Wood Frame Construction 398
A. Why construction of wood frame buildings results in high injury rates 398
B. How can wood frame construction injuries be prevented? 399
C. Code references and industry standards 401
D. Case in point 402
E. Product safety 403
F. Alternatives to regulation 404
29.2 Concrete Formwork 407
A. Discussion 407
B. Case in point 408
C. What are the chances of injury and death 409
D. Why falls from elevations occur on concrete formwork 410
E. How falls can be prevented 410
F. Code references and industry standards 411
G. Representative litigation 413
29.3 Steel Erection 414
A. Type occurrences 415
B. What are chances of injury or death? 415
C. Why injuries continue to occur 416
D. How injuries can be prevented 418
E. History 420
F. Code references and industry standards 421
G. Cases in point 429
H. Legislation 429
29.4 Masonry Failure Hazards 430
A. Typical occurrences of human tragedy 430
B. What are the chances of injury or death? 431
C. Why masonry injures and failures occur 431
D. How masonry injuries and can be prevented 433
E. History 435
F. Code references and industry standards 436
G. Representative litigation 439
H. Building cladding 439

Chapter 30: Ladders, Scaffoldings and Platforms 441
30.1 Introduction 442
30.2 Ladders 442
A. Typical occurrences 444
B. What are the chances of injury and death from ladders? 444
C. Why injuries continue to occur 445
D. How can ladder injuries be prevented? 446
E. History 450
F. Code references and industry standards 450
G. Representative ligitation 453
30.3 Scaffolding 455
30.4 Access and Work Platforms 456
30.5 Fall Prevention vs. Fall Protection 457
A. Tragic situations 457
B. What are the chances of injury or death? 458
C. Where fatal falls most often occur 459
D. Why fatal falls keep occurring 459
E. How to be protected from falls from an elevation 459
F. History 464
G. Code references and industry standards 465
H. Representative litigation 472
I. What's new in the industry? 473
J. Times have changed 474
30.6 How to Ensure Safe Access and Working Locations 475
A. History 476
B. Code references and industry standards 477
C. Representative litigation 480
Endnotes 484

Chapter 31: Confined Spaces, Manholes, Tanks and Attics 485
31.1 Introduction 485
31.2 Confined Spaces 486
A. What is a confined space? 487
B. Typical occurrence 488
C. What are the chances of injury or death? 490
D. History 493
E. Pre-entry check list for confined space safety 493
F. Atmospheric hazards 494
G. Code references and industry standards 495
H. Representative literature 497
I. Case in point 498
31.3 Trenching 500
A. Tragic occurrences 500
B. What are the chances of injury or death? 501
C. Why trench collapse occurs 502
D. Other associated hazards 503
E. How trenching injuries and death can be prevented 504
F. Trench boxes 505
G. The history of trenching hazards 509
H. Code references and industry standards 509
I. Representative litigation 515
31.4 Hazard Isolation 516
A. Procedures for controlled entry, lockout/tagout and
permits 516
B. What are the chances of injury or death? 518
C. Why isolation of dangerous energy is sometimes
overlooked 521
D. How controlled entry, lockout/tagout and permits
can save lives 521
E. Code references and industry standards 524
Endnotes 527

Chapter 32: Cranes, Hoist, Blocking and Rigging 529
32.1 Crane Upsets 529
A. Typical occurrences 530
B. What are the chances of injury or death? 530
C. Why crane upsets keep happening 532
D. How crane upset can be prevented 534
E. Code references and industry standards 535
F. Patents 536
32.2 Equipment Powerline Contact 536
A. What are the chances of injury or death? 536
B. Why powerline contacts keep occuring 540
C. How powerline contact can be prevented 541
D. Code references and industry standards 547
32.3 Killer Hooks 550
A. Typical occurrences of human tragedy 550
B. What are the chances of injury or death? 552
C. Why hooks failures happen 552
D. How load loss can be prevented 553
E. Recap of important safety tips: 555
F. History 556
G. Code references and industry standards 556
32.4 Crane Two-Blocking Hazard 558
A. Human tragedy 559
B. What are the chances of injury or death? 561
C. Why two-blocking keeps occurring 562
D. How two-blocking can be prevented 562
E. History 564
F. Code references and industry standards 565

Part IV, The User/Occupant
Chapter 33: Moving Parts of Machinery 571
33.1 Introduction 571
33.2 Case In Point 572
33.3 What are the Chances of Injury or Death? 573
A. Why it keeps occurring 575
B. Mechanical hazards 575
C. Hazardous motions and actions 576
33.4 How Injury Can be Prevented 577
A. Requirements for safeguards 578
33.5 Types of Machine Guards 578
A. Fixed guard 578
B. Point-of-operation guard 578
C. Automatic and interlocking guards 579
D. Self-adjusting guards 580
E. Other guarding 580
F. Guarding during maintenance 580
33.6 History 581
33.7 Code References and Industry Standards 582
33.8 Patents 584
33.9 Representative Litigation 585
33.10 Lessons Learned 585

Chapter 34: Operational Manuals and User Training 587

About the Authors 591
Index 595

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