Roadway Safety and Tort Liability, Second Edition

John C. Glennon, D.Engr., PE and Paul F. Hill, Esq.

Acknowledgments xvii

Part I
John C. Glennon, D. Engr., PE

1. An Overview of Roadway Safety and Tort Liability 3
1.1 Diagnosing the Traffic Safety Problem 5
1.2 Driver Performance 7
A. Information handling 9
B. Driver perception-reaction time 9
1.3 Driver Expectancy, Roadway Consistency and Positive Guidance 11
A. Driver expectancy 16
B. Roadway consistency 17
C. Positive guidance 17
1.4 Nature of Roadway Defects Today 18
1.5 Basic Legal Concepts 19
A. Negligence 21
B. Contributory versus comparative negligence 22
C. Joint and several liability 22
D. Standard of care 22
E. Notice of a defect 23
F. Sovereign immunity 23
G. Governmental versus proprietary functions 24
H. Discretionary versus ministerial acts 24
I. Design immunity 25
1.6 Authoritative Sources of Information 25
A. Roadway design 26
B. Roadway maintenance 26
C. Traffic control devices 26
D. Work zone safety 28
E. Roadside safety 28
F. Rail-highway grade crossings 28
1.7 The Intended Focus of This Book 29
Endnotes 30
References 32

2. Roadside Safety 33
2.1 Characteristics of Single-Vehicle Collisions 37
2.2 Characteristics of Roadside Encroachments 38
2.3 A Roadside Hazard Model 41
2.4 Clear Zone Standards 44
2.5 Functional Roadside Elements 47
A. Roadside slopes 47
B. Bridges 50
C. Drainage facilities 51
D. Light poles 53
E. Sign supports 55
F. Traffic signal supports 61
G. Curbs 62
2.6 Non-Functional Roadside Elements 64
A. Trees 64
B. Utility poles 64
C. Traffic barriers 66
D. Other fixed objects 66
2.7 Technical Aspects of Roadside Hazard Cases 66
A. Roadway widening projects that sacrifice roadside safety 68
B. Steep side slopes 68
C. Removable objects within the clear zone 68
D. Moveable objects within the clear zone 69
E. Non-breakaway functional objects within the clear zone 70
F. Unprotected functional objects within the clear zone 70
G. Defective traffic barriers 72
H. Pavement edge drops 72
2.8 Typical Defense Arguments 73
Endnotes 74
References 76

3. Traffic Barriers 77
3.1 Roadside Barriers 79
A. Performance 80
B. Warrants 80
C. Designs 81
D. End treatments 85
E. Placement 90
3.2 Bridge Rails 93
A. Performance 94
B. Designs 95
C. Transitions 97
D. Retrofitting substandard bridge rails 97
3.3 Median Barriers 99
A. Warrants 99
B. Designs 99
C. End treatments 106
D. Transitions 106
E. Placement 106
3.4 Crash Cushions 108
A. Concept 108
B. Designs 110
C. Placement 114
3.5 Technical Aspects of Traffic Barrier Defect Cases 114
A. Design versus maintenance function 114
B. Collision repair 115
C. Guardrail defects 115
D. Bridge rail defects 127
E. Median barrier defects 130
F. Crash cushion defects 133
3.6 Typical Defense Arguments 135
Endnotes 136
References 138

4. Stopping Sight Distance 139
4.1 Historical Perspective 140
4.2 Stopping Sight Distance Design Standards 142
4.3 Accident Experience with Restricted Stopping Sight Distance 147
4.4 Functional Analysis of Stopping Sight Distance Requirements 148
4.5 Decision Sight Distance Design Standard 151
4.6 Technical Aspects of Stopping Sight Distance Defects Cases 153
A. Hillcrests with deficient SSD on narrow roadways 154
B. Hillcrests with deficient SSD that hide nearby intersections 154
C. Sharp roadway curves hidden by SSD-restricted hillcrests 156
D. Hidden Stop signs 157
E. A project to flatten a SSD-restricted hillcrest can produce no safety benefit 158
F. Sharp roadway curves with restricted SSD 158
G. Sharp roadway curves on freeways with a concrete median barrier 160
4.7 Accident Reconstruction Aspects 160
4.8 Typical Defense Arguments 161
Endnotes 162
References 164

5. Intersection Sight Distance 167
5.1 Sight Distance Requirements for Uncontrolled Intersections 168
5.2 Sight Distance Requirements for Stop-Controlled Intersections 169
5.3 Rail-Highway Grade Crossing Sight Distance 171
5.4 Technical Aspects of Intersection Sight Distance Defect Cases 171
A. Uncontrolled intersections with deficient sight distance 173
B. Stop-controlled intersections with sight restrictions 176
C. Sight obstructions at freeway interchanges 177
D. Sight obstructions at driveways 178
5.5 Accident Reconstruction Aspects 178
5.6 Typical Defense Arguments 178
Endnotes 180
References 181

6. Slippery Pavements and Hydroplaning Sections 183
6.1 Design and Construction of Pavements 186
6.2 Mechanics of the Tire-Pavement Interface 186
6.3 Frictional Requirements of Traffic 189
6.4 Measurement of Pavement Skid Resistance 194
6.5 Accidents on Wet Pavements 197
6.6 Standards for Skid Resistance 198
6.7 Hydroplaning 200
A. Mechanics of hydroplaning 204
B. Pavement texture 205
C. Pavement drainage 206
D. Pavement wheel ruts 207
E. Vehicle tires 208
6.8 Technical Aspects of Slippery Pavement or Hydroplaning Cases 210
6.9 Accident Reconstruction Aspects 212
6.10 Typical Defense Arguments 214
Endnotes 215
References 218

7. Pavement Edge Drops 221
7.1 Characteristics of a Pavement Edge Drop Traversal 222
7.2 Writings and Research on Pavement Edge Drops 225
A. Ivey and Griffin (1976) 226
B. Nordlin, Parks, Stoughton and Stoker (1976) 227
C. Klein, Johnson and Szostak (1977) 227
D. Zimmer and Ivey (1982) 229
E. Graham and Glennon (1984) 232
F. Glennon (1985) 234
G. Olson, Zimmer and Pezoldt (1986) 237
H. Ivey and Sicking (1986) 238
I. Ivey, Mak, Cooner and Marek (1988) 240
J. Humphreys and Parham (1994) 244
7.3 Recommended Standards for Pavement Edge Drops 244
A. Recommended practices for normal maintenance 245
B. Recommended contract provisions for resurfacing roadways 246
C. Recommended practices for construction zones 246
7.4 Technical Aspects of Pavement Edge Drop Cases 247
7.5 Typical Defense Arguments 250
Endnotes 251

8. Rail-Highway Grade Crossings 255
8.1 Accident Statistics 257
8.2 Legal Responsibilities of Railroads and Roadway Agencies 258
8.3 Legal Requirements of Drivers at Crossings 258
8.4 Stages of the Rail-Highway Grade Crossing Maneuver 260
8.5 Vehicle-Train Conflict Circumstances 262
8.6 Driver Needs 263
A. Sight-restricted crossing 264
B. Roadway intersections close to the crossing 265
C. Sharp crossing-intersection angle 265
D. Poor visibility of the train at night 265
E. Lack of preview of the crossing 267
F. Rough crossings 267
G. Steep crossing approaches 267
H. Appearance of abandonment 269
8.7 Traffic Control Devices for Rail-Highway Grade Crossings 269
A. Crossbuck signs 269
B. Advance warning signs 270
C. Pavement markings 271
D. Turn prohibition signs 272
E. Stop or Yield signs 272
F. Flashing light signals 272
G. Automatic gates 274
H. Train detection 275
I. Traffic signals near grade crossings 276
8.8 Sight Distance Requirements 276
A. Moving roadway vehicle 276
B. Stopped roadway vehicle 280
8.9 Rail-Highway Grade Crossing Improvements 281
A. Eliminate crossings 281
B. Remove devices at abandoned crossings 284
C. Improve sight-restricted crossings 285
D. Bring crossings up to standard 287
E. Install flashing light signals 287
F. Install automatic gates 288
G. Add cantilever signals 288
H. Install active advance warning signs 289
I. Install Do Not Stop On Tracks sign 289
J. Install turn prohibition signs 290
K. Install warning bells 290
L. Install crossing illumination 290
M. Improve roadway horizontal alignment 290
N. Improve roadway vertical alignment 291
O. Improve roadway cross-section 292
P. Improve crossing surfaces 292
Q. Improve train conspicuity 293
R. Reduce roadway speed limit 294
S. Reduce track speed limit 294
T. Install combinations of improvements 294
8.10 Technical Aspects of Rail-Highway Grade Crossing Defect Cases 294
A. Sight triangle obstructions 296
B. Nearby intersections 297
C. Sharp angle crossing approach 298
D. Poor maintenance of signs 298
E. Lack of advance warnings 300
F. Poor flashing signal visibility 300
G. Steep crossing grade 300
H. Rough crossings 302
8.11 Accident Reconstruction Aspects 302
A. Train braking performance 303
B. Crush damage method 304
8.12 Typical Defense Arguments 306
Endnotes 307
References 308

9. Roadway Curves 309
9.1 Vehicle Cornering 310
9.2 Tire Pavement Skid Resistance 311
9.3 Roadway Curve Design Standards 312
A. Safe side friction factors 312
B. Maximum superelevation rates 315
C. Minimum curve radius 316
9.4 Roadway Curve Accident Characteristics 316
9.5 Signing for Roadway Curves 319
A. Curve and Turn signs and Advisory Speed plates 321
B. Combination curves 323
C. Supplementary curves signs 323
9.6 Delineation for Roadway Curves 324
9.7 Technical Aspects of Roadway Curve Defect Cases 325
A. Narrow roadway 326
B. Sight obstructions on roadway curves 327
C. Tangent roadway with false visual cues 328
D. Low or negative superelevation 329
E. Rough or uneven pavements 329
F. Slippery pavements 330
G. Other elements 330
9.8 Accident Reconstruction Aspects 330
9.9 Typical Defense Arguments 331
Endnotes 332
References 333

10. Construction and Maintenance Zones 335
10.1 Fundamental Principles 337
10.2 Traffic Operational Elements 338
A. Tapers 339
B. Detours and diversions 340
C. One-way traffic control 342
D. Flagging 342
E. Mobile operations 342
F. Pedestrian safety 344
G. Worker safety 344
H. Typical applications 346
10.3 Traffic Control Devices 346
A. Regulatory signs 346
B. Road closure signs 351
C. Warning signs 352
D. Detour signs 354
E. Channelizing devices 354
F. Warning lights 357
G. Advance warning arrow displays 357
H. Pavement markings 359
I. Temporary traffic signals 359
10.4 Technical Aspects of Construction or Maintenance Zone Defect Cases 360
10.5 Typical Defense Arguments 362
Endnotes 363
References 364

11. Traffic Control Devices 365
11.1 Traffic Control Device Requirements 369
A. Design 370
B. Placement 370
C. Operation or application 370
D. Maintenance 370
E. Uniformity 370
11.2 Driver Information Needs 370
11.3 Traffic Signs 371
A. Stop signs 373
B. Yield signs 374
C. Warning signs 374
D. Road closure signs 378
E. Wrong-way traffic control 378
11.4 Traffic Markings 379
A. Longitudinal lines 380
B. Transverse pavement markings 383
C. Object markers 384
D. Roadway delineators 385
11.5 Traffic Signals 387
A. Traffic signal warrants 387
B. Number and arrangement of lenses per signal face 393
C. Flashing signals 396
D. Size of signal lenses 396
E. Locations and visibility of signal faces 397
F. Height of signal faces 398
G. Shielding of signal faces 399
H. Signal out of operation 399
I. Yellow phase-change intervals 399
J. Pedestrianπs signal needs 400
K. Hazard identification beacon 401
L. Intersection control beacon 401
M. Left-turn signal displays 402
11.6 The 1988 MUTCD at Court 402
A. MUTCD word meanings 403
B. MUTCD contradictions 404
C. Lack of continuity 406
D. Plaintiff versus defendant 408
E. Summary 409
11.7 The 2000 and 2003 MUTCDs at Court 410
11.8 Technical Aspects of Traffic Control Device Defect Cases 410
A. Hidden traffic signs 411
B. Illusive traffic signs 413
C. Nonreflective signs 414
D. Failure to warn 414
E. Wrong sign for location 415
F. Unclear messages 416
G. Nonstandard traffic signs 416
H. Damaged traffic signs 416
I. Warning sign in only one direction 418
J. Partially obscured signs 419
K. Signs that directly indicate negligence 420
L. Missing End of Road markers 420
M. Obstructions in the roadway 422
N. Missing or faded pavement markings 422
O. Isolated traffic signals 422
P. Signal visibility defects 423
11.9 Typical Defense Arguments 423
Endnotes 424
References 425

12. Roadway Maintenance 427
12.1 Unpaved Surface Maintenance 429
A. Corrugations 431
B. Wheel ruts 432
C. Soft spots 432
D. Dust 432
E. Potholes 432
12.2 Asphalt Pavement Maintenance 432
A. Corrugations and shoving 433
B. Potholes 433
C. Upheavals and settlements 435
D. Flushing 435
E. Cracks 436
F. Pavement edge drops 436
G. Wheel ruts 436
H. Aggregate polishing 437
I. Debris on the pavement 437
12.3 Concrete Pavement Maintenance 437
A. Surface texture distress 439
B. Scaling 439
C. Crack and joint distress 439
D. Spalling 440
E. Blowups 440
F. Frost heaves 440
G. Pumping 441
H. Pavement edge drops 441
I. Debris on the pavement 441
12.4 Shoulder Maintenance 441
A. Earth shoulders 443
B. Sod shoulders 443
C. Aggregate surfaced shoulders 443
D. Surface treated shoulders 444
E. Paved shoulders 444
F. Maintenance of pavement edge drops 444
12.5 Roadside Drainage and Vegetation Maintenance 444
A. Drainage facilities 445
B. Vegetation control 445
C. Roadside hazard control 445
12.6 Traffic Barrier Maintenance 446
A. Guardrails 446
B. Bridge rails 446
C. Median barriers 446
D. Crash cushions 448
12.7 Traffic Control Device Maintenance 449
A. Traffic signs 451
B. Traffic markings 451
C. Traffic signals 452
D. Roadway lighting 452
12.8 Snow and Ice Control 452
A. Winter maintenance policies and plans 453
B. Storm watch 455
C. Training 455
D. General maintenance procedures 456
E. Snow plowing 457
F. Chemical and abrasive application 459
12.9 Technical Aspects of Maintenance Defect Cases 459
A. Washboard, wheel ruts and holes on unpaved roadways 460
B. Windrows of gravel on unpaved roadways 460
C. Dust on unpaved roadways 461
D. Roughness, potholes, and bumps on paved roadways 461
E. Gravel on the pavement 463
E. Flooded pavements 464
F. Soft shoulders 464
G. Icy bridges 464
H. Sight distance obstruction created by snow plowing 465
I. Snow-plow cloud 465
J. Hydroplaning sections in the winter 465
12.10 Typical Defense Arguments 466
Endnotes 467
References 467

Part II
Paul F. Hill, Esq.

13. Introduction to Part II 471
How This Part of the Book Was Researched and Written 471
Governmental Immunity 472
Discretionary and Ministerial Functions 473
Notice: Actual or Constructive 473
Identifying Whom to Claim Against 474
Government Has a Non-delegable Duty. 475
Government Is Not an Insurer of Safety 476

14. Traffic Signs: Decision to Install, Missing, Obscured, or Improper 479

15. Traffic Signals: Decision to Install, Timing, Inoperable or Improper 509

16. Curves 523

17. Potholes and Other Surface Defects 535

18. Ice, Snow, Sand, Gravel, Oil, or Water on the Road 549

19. Shoulder, Drop-Off, and Beyond the Shoulder 577

20. Traffic Barriers: Guardrails, Bridge Rails, and Median Barriers 593

21. Trees, Poles, Posts, Support Columns, Vegetation Obstructing View 613

22. Railroad Crossing 629

23. Objects Thrown, Dropped, or Falling from Bridge or Overpass
647

24. Collisions with Deer and Other Wild Animals on the Road 655

About the Authors 663
Index 665

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