Train Accident Reconstruction and FELA & Railroad Litigation, Fourth Edition

William G. Jungbauer, James R. Loumiet, Bernard S. Abrams, John C. Glennon, Thomas R. Ireland 

Table of Contents  (Back to book ordering page)

Acknowledgments xxi
Preface xxiii

Part I: Train Accident Reconstruction
James R. Loumiet, B.S.M.E.

Chapter 1: Introduction 3
1.1 What is Railroad Accident Reconstruction? 3
1.2 Railroad Accident/Incident Statistics 3
1.3 Rail Modes, Classes, and Systems 9
A. Freight 9
B. Amtrak 9
C. Transit 10
1.4 Railroad Organizational Structure 13
Endnotes 13

Chapter 2: Railroad Safety, Training, and Operations 15
2.1 Railroad Workplace Safety 16
2.2 Employee Training, Qualification, and Certification 17
A. Employee safety training 17
B. Locomotive engineer certification 17
C. Employee training for inspection and testing 17
D. Training for hazmat employees 18
2.3 Railroad Communications 18
2.4 Terminal and Yard Operations 18
A. Terminal and yard officers 19
B. Terminal and yard facilities 19
C. Switching operations 19
2.5 Testing and Inspection of Rail Equipment 21
A. Testing and inspection of freight cars 21
B. Testing and inspection of locomotives 22
C. Testing and inspection of trains 23
D. Testing and inspection of passenger equipment 27
E. Testing and inspection of end-of-train devices 30
2.6 Movement Authority and Traffic Control 31
A. Timetables, train orders, and track warrants 31
B. Bulletins, and notices 32
C. Automatic block signaling 32
D. Absolute permissive block signaling 33
E. Centralized traffic control signaling 33
F. Automatic train stop system 34
G. Cab signals 35
2.7 Train handling and operations 35
A. General train safety 35
B. Train crew responsibilities 35
C. Train speed 37
D. Approaching, traversing, and occupying grade crossings 39
E. Use of whistles, horns, bells, and lights 40
F. Train braking 42
G. Slack control 43
2.8 Railroad Accidents and Incidents: Reports, Classification, and Investigations 43
A. Form FRA F 6180.54. Rail Equipment Accident/Incident Report 43
B. Form FRA F 6180.55. Railroad Injury and Illness Summary 44
C. Form FRA 6180.55a. Railroad Injury and Illness (Continuation Sheet) 44
D. Form FRA F 6180.57-Highway-Rail Grade Crossing Accident/Incident Report 44
E. Form FRA F 6180.81. Employee Human Factor Attachment 44
F. Form FRA F 6180.78. Notice to Railroad Employee Involved in Rail Equipment
Accident/Incident Attributed to Employee Human Factor; Employee Statement
Supplementing Railroad Accident Report. 44
G. Form FRA F 6180.98. Railroad Employee Injury and/or Illness Record 44
H. Form FRA F 6180.97. Initial Rail Equipment Accident/Incident Record 44
I. Form FRAF 6180.107. Alternative Record for Illnesses Claimed to Be Work-Related 45
Endnotes 45

Chapter 3: Shipper, Carrier and Consignee Duties in Freight by Rail 47
3.1 People Exposed to Loaded Rail Vehicles 47
3.2 Modes and Categories of Carriage 47
3.3 Interstate and Intrastate Carriage of Goods 48
3.4 Regulation of Interstate Common Carriage of Goods by Rail 48
3.5 Uniform Straight Bill of Lading (The contract of common carriage) 49
3.6 General Duties of the Rail Common Carrier 51
3.7 Common Law Exceptions to Common Carrier Liability 52
3.8 General Duties of the Shipper (Consignor) in Common Carriage 52
3.9 General Duties of the Receiver (Consignee) in Common Carriage 53
3.10 Placarded Railcars 53
3.11 TOFC/COFC and the Federal Motor Carrier Safety Regulations 55
3.12 Filing and Resolving Freight Claims 56
3.13 Casualty Claim and Litigation 56
3.14 Case Histories and Typical Accident Causes 56
Endnotes 57

Chapter 4: Track and Rail 59
4.1 Federal Law and Requirements 59
4.2 Industry Standards and Specifications 59
4.3 Track Classifications 60
A. Track class 60
B. Types of service 61
C. Hazardous materials routes 61
4.4 Track and Appliances 61
A. Rail 61
B. Connectors 62
C. Continuous welded rail 64
D. Ties 65
E. Turnouts 66
F. Crossings 67
4.5 Right-of-Way and Roadway 68
A. Right-of-way 68
B. Stationing and mileposts 68
C. Roadway structure 69
D. Ballast and subballast 69
E. Subgrade 70
F. Bridges and trestles 71
G. Tunnels 71
4.6 Geometric Design 72
A. Gage 72
B. Alignment 72
C. Surface 73
D. Vertical curves 75
E. Horizontal curves 75
F. Grade 76
G. Clearances 77
4.7 Inspections and Maintenance 77
A. Inspections 77
B. Track, roadway, and signal maintenance 78
C. Testing by rail defect detection and track geometry cars 78
D. Vegetation control 79
Endnotes 79

Chapter 5: Railcars and Locomotives 81
5.1 Freight Cars 81
A. Car classes 81
B. Car capacity 81
C. Stenciling and badge plates 82
D. Safety appliances 83
E. Freight rolling stock reflectorization 83
5.2 Intermodal Cars 85
A. Modified flat cars 85
B. Spine cars 85
C. Double-stack well cars 85
D. Containers and trailers 86
5.3 Passenger Cars 86
A. Amtrak 87
B. Transit cars 87
5.4 Locomotives 88
A. General design 88
B. Lighting 88
C. Audible warning device 90
D. Sanders 90
E. Cab design 90
F. Multiple units and distributed power 91
G. Microprocessor control and information technology 91
Endnotes 93

Chapter 6: Locomotive Cab Safety and Crashworthiness 95
6.1 Evolution of the Locomotive Cab 95
A. National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) criticisms 98
B. Control Compartment Committee 98
C. Federal Railroad Administration (FRA) regulations 98
6.2 Environment 99
A. Railroad-specific risks 99
B. Vibration and shock 100
C. Crew comfort 100
D. Thermal environment 101
E. Crew visibility 101
F. Noise environment 102
G. Ventilation 102
6.3 Crashworthiness 102
A. Types of accidents 102
B. Crossing accidents 103
C. Derailments 103
D. Force resistance and force deflection 104
E. Climbers and anticlimbers 104
F. Escape plans and escape routes 104
6.4 New Locomotives and Rebuilt Locomotives 105
6.5 The Future of Locomotive Cab Safety 105
References 106

Chapter 7: Train Braking Systems Design and Performance 109
7.1 Freight Car Braking Overview 109
7.2 Passenger Car Braking Overview 110
A. Automatic brakes 110
B. Electropneumatic brakes 112
C. Blended braking 113
D. Track brakes 113
7.3 Locomotive Braking Overview 113
A. Automatic brakes 113
B. Independent brakes 114
C. Dynamic brakes 115
D. Blended braking 115
E. Microprocessor-controlled air brakes 116
7.4 Control Valves 116
7.5 Brake Cylinders 117
7.6 Brake Pipe Pressure and Brake Cylinder Pressure 118
7.7 Brake Pipe Leakage and Gradient 119
7.8 Empty-Load Equipment 120
7.9 Wheel-Rail Adhesion and Sanding 120
A. Slip and slide 120
B. Contaminants 121
7.10 Brake Shoe Type and Friction 121
7.11 Slack Adjusters 122
7.12 Wheel Diameter 122
7.13 Wheel Slide Detection Equipment 122
7.14 Foundation Brake Rigging and Lever Ratio 122
7.15 Rigging Efficiency 123
7.16 Net Braking Ratio (NBR) 123
A. NBR defined 123
B. Standards 124
C. NBR range 125
7.17 Track Grade and Curvature 126
7.18 Train Resistance 126
7.19 Unbraked Cars 127
7.20 End-of-Train Braking Devices 127
7.21 Electronically-Controlled Pneumatic (ECP) Brakes 127
7.22 Hand Brakes 128
Endnotes 128

Chapter 8: Train Speed, Time and Distance Calculations 129
8.1 Retardation Forces 129
A. Braking forces 129
B. Grade forces 130
C. Curve forces 130
D. Train resistance forces 130
8.2 Deceleration Rate 130
A. Deceleration rates from reference sources 130
B. Deceleration rate using translational and rotational kinetic energy 131
8.3 Braking Distance and Speed Calculations Using Uniform Deceleration 132
8.4 Braking Distance and Speed Calculations Using Non-Uniform Deceleration 133
8.5 Braking Distance and Speed Calculations Using Computer Simulation 134
8.6 Maximum Train Speed Given Horsepower and Tractive Effort 135
8.7 Train Speed Given Motor Vehicle Crush Damage 136
8.8 Train Speed and Braking Distance Graphs 136
References 137

Chapter 9: Pedestrians and Pedestrian-Accident Countermeasures 139
9.1 Pedestrian Behavior 139
9.2 Characteristics of Child Pedestrians 139
9.3 Pedestrian Walking and Running Rates 140
9.4 Safety Countermeasures 140
Endnotes 142

Chapter 10: Rail-Highway Grade Crossing Design and Maintenance 143
10.1 Accident Statistics 144
10.2 Legal Responsibilities of Railroads and Roadway Agencies 144
10.3 Legal Requirements of Drivers at Crossings 144
10.4 Stages of the Rail-Highway Grade Crossing Maneuver 145
10.5 Vehicle-Train Conflict Circumstances 146
10.6 Driver Needs 147
A. Sight-restricted crossing 147
B. Roadway intersections close to the crossing 148
C. Sharp crossing intersection angle 148
D. Poor visibility of the train at night 148
E. Lack of preview of the crossing 148
F. Rough crossings 148
G. Steep crossing approaches 149
H. Appearance of abandonment 149
10.7 Traffic Control Devices for Rail-Highway Grade Crossings 150
A. Crossbuck signs 150
B. Advance warning signs 150
C. Pavement markings 151
D. Turn prohibition signs 151
E. Stop or Yield signs 151
F. Flashing light signals 151
G. Automatic gates 152
H. Train detection 153
I. Traffic signals near grade crossings 153
10.8 Sight Distance Requirements 153
A. Moving roadway vehicle 153
B. Stopped roadway vehicle 155
10.9 Rail-Highway Grade Crossing Improvements 155
A. Eliminate crossings 155
B. Remove devices at abandoned crossings 157
C. Improve sight-restricted crossings 157
D. Bring crossings up to standard 158
E. Install flashing light signals 158
F. Install automatic gates 158
G. Add cantilever signals 159
H. Install active advance warning signs 159
I. Install DO NOT STOP ON TRACKS sign 159
J. Install turn prohibition signs 159
K. Install warning bells 159
L. Install crossing illumination 159
M. Improve roadway horizontal alignment 160
N. Improve roadway vertical alignment 160
O. Improve roadway cross-section 160
P. Improve crossing surfaces 161
Q. Improve train conspicuity 161
R. Reduce roadway speed limit 161
S. Reduce track speed limit 162
T. Install combinations of improvements 162
10.10 Technical Aspects of Rail-Highway Grade Crossing Defect Cases 162
A. Sight triangle obstructions 163
B. Nearby intersections 163
C. Sharp angle crossing approach 164
D. Poor maintenance of signs 164
E. Lack of advance warnings 164
F. Poor flashing signal visibility 164
G. Steep crossing grade 165
H. Rough crossings 166
10.11 Accident Reconstruction Aspects 166
10.12 Typical Defense Arguments 166
Endnotes 167
References 167

Chapter 11: Rail-Highway Grade Crossing Active Warning Systems: Function and Failure 169
11.1 Fail Safe Concept 169
11.2 Railroad Signal Systems That Use Relay Control Circuits 170
A. Design and operation 170
B. Modes of failure 171
C. Other designs 172
11.3 Track Circuits: The Heart of Railroad Signal Systems 172
11.4 False Activation 173
11.5 Activation Failure 173
A. Causes of failure 173
B. Lock out 174
11.6 Electronic Automatic Grade Crossing Warning Control Systems 175
11.7 Motion Detectors and Motion Sensors 175
A. Design and operation 175
B. Modes of failure 176
11.8 Constant Warning Control Systems 177
Endnotes 177

Chapter 12: Visibility at Rail-Highway Grade Crossings 179
12.1 Human Visual System Function 179
12.2 Components of Vision 181
A. Visual acuity 181
B. Field of vision 181
C. Depth perception 181
D. Contrast sensitivity 181
E. Adaptation 182
12.3 Testing of Visual Performance 182
A. Snellen fractions 182
B. Contrast sensitivity 182
C. Other visual tests 182
12.4 The Visual System at Night 182
A. Contrast 182
B. Information 183
C. Darkness defined 183
12.5 Necessary Visual Cues for Driving 183
A. Perspective cues 183
B. Velocity judgements 184
C. Brightness 184
D. Illumination and luminance 184
E. Atmospheric cues 184
F. Weather 185
12.6 Driver Visual Needs at Crossings 185
A. Information needs at crossings 185
B. Processing visual information 185
C. Visual warnings 186
D. Day conspicuity 186
E. Night conspicuity 186
12.7 Human Factors of Railroad Visual Warning Devices 186
A. The brain, vision, and railroad warning devices 187
B. Perception-reaction 188
C. Perception-reaction time 188
D. Grade crossing design 188
12.8 Adequacy of Existing Standards and Devices 189
A. Traffic control systems for rail-highway crossings 190
B. Railroad crossing (crossbuck) signs 190
C. Railroad advance warning signs 191
D. Pavement markings 191
E. Illumination at grade crossings 191
F. Active warning devices 192
G. Locomotive lights 193
12.9 Buckeye Crossbuck 193
12.10 Sun Glare 195
12.11 Non-Reflective or Absent Signs at Night 196
12.12 Motor Vehicle Side Impact with Train at Night 197
12.13 Motor Vehicle and Pedestrian Conspicuity to Train Crews 197
Endnotes 197
Additional Sources 198

Chapter 13: Audibility at Rail-Highway Grade Crossings 199
13.1 Psychophysical and Psychoacoustical Principles 199
A. Threshold of detectibility 200
B. Threshold of recognizability 200
13.2 Faulty Assumptions 200
13.3 Investigation of the Pertinent Variables 201
A. Variables and factors involved 201
B. Procedures 202
1. Determine the sound pressure level (SPL) of the train horn (in dB) from appropriate
distances and angles of sound incidence 202
2. Establish the acoustical insertion loss caused by the shell of the vehicle 206
3. Measure the operating ambient sound level of the vehicle under conditions that existed
at the time of the accident such as speed, terrain, road surface, and so forth 207
4. Calculate the signal-to-noise ratio (S/N) for appropriate points of comparison 207
13.4 The Role of Hearing Ability 208
13.5 Special Conditions 208
13.6 Conclusion 209
References 209

Chapter 14: Train Slack Action Effects 211
14.1 Couplers, Draft Gear and Cushioning Devices 211
A. Couplers 211
B. Draft gears and cushioning devices 213
14.2 The Nature and Causes of Slack Action 213
14.3 Analysis of Coupler Impact Forces 214
14.4 Parametric Study of Slack Action Effects 215
14.5 Conclusions from Parametric Study of Slack Action Effects 215
14.6 Injuries to Personnel Because of Slack Action 217
Endnotes 219

Chapter 15: Locomotive Event Recorders 221
15.1 Federal Law and Requirements 222
A. Definition and data requirements 222
B. Duty to equip 222
C. Response to defective equipment 222
D. Removal from service 222
E. Preserving accident data 223
F. Disabling event recorders 223
G. Inspection, maintenance, and testing 223
15.2 Design and Operation 224
A. Magnetic tape recorders 224
B. Microprocessor-based solid state recorders 224
C. Control system embedded recorders 224
D. Analog data channels 225
E. Digital data channels 225
F. Time-based recording 225
G. Event-based recording 225
15.3 Commonly Monitored Functions 225
A. Time 225
B. Speed and distance 225
C. Traction motor current 226
D. Tractive effort 226
E. Throttle position 226
F. Automatic brakes 226
G. Independent brakes 226
H. Dynamic brakes 226
I. Direction of travel 226
J. Horn 226
K. Bell 227
15.4 Downloading and Accessing Data 227
A. Downloading methods 227
B. Analysis software 227
C. Data outputs 228
15.5 Wabtec Railway Electronics/Pulse Electronics 229
A. 48H series recorders 229
B. Tracer Event Recorder 231
C. Train Trax(r) solid state event recorder system 232
15.6 Quantum Engineering 233
A. Q-Series event recorders 233
B. QDP(r) event recorder data playback system 234
15.7 Bach-Simpson 234
A. TMACS 234
B. 53000/54000 Series event recorders 235
15.8 Video and audio recording systems 235
A. Bach-Simpson Traxsyte system 235
B. General Electric LocoCAM(tm) 235
15.9 Accuracy and Error 236
A. Display and printout accuracy 236
B. Resolution and delay time 236
C. Incorrect analysis software 236
D. Incorrect wheel size 236
E. Slipping, sliding, or locked wheel 236
F. Channel malfunctions 237
G. Collision damage 237
15.10 Interpretation and Analysis of Data 237
A. Verifying authenticity of a printout 237
B. Determining point and time of impact 237
C. Determining point and time of derailment 238
D. Determining location and time of train separation 238
E. Speed and distance from tabular printouts 238
F. Distance from graphical printouts 239
G. Compensating for incorrect wheel size 239
References 240

Chapter 16: Derailments 241
16.1 Track-Train Dynamics 242
A. Wheel-rail interface 242
B. Lateral forces 242
C. Vertical forces 243
16.2 Rail and Track Factors 244
A. Missing or dilapidated track components 244
B. Track deviations 244
C. Defective rail 244
D. Turnouts 247
E. Unstable roadbed 247
F. Foreign objects on tracks 247
G. Temperature defects 247
H. Grade crossings 248
16.3 Equipment and Lading Factors 248
A. Defective equipment 248
B. Improper distribution of cars 249
C. Shifted lading and improper loading 249
16.4 Operational and Dynamic Factors 249
A. Improper train handling 249
B. Low speed in curve derailments 250
C. High speed in curve derailments 250
D. Harmonic roll 251
E. Bounce 251
F. Truck hunting 251
G. Collisions 251
H. Pulling dragging equipment 251
16.5 Derailment Investigation and Analysis 252
A. Point of derailment and first wheel to derail 252
B. Analyzing marks on the ground 252
C. Laboratory analysis 252
D. Event recorder analysis 253
E. Computer simulation 254
F. Root cause analysis 254
Endnotes 254

Chapter 17: Patron and Worker Slips, Trips, and Falls 255
17.1 Falls on Floors, Ramps, Stairs, and Escalators 256
A. Human locomotion 256
B. Accidents on floors 256
1. Walking on floors 256
2. Types and causes of falls on floors 256
3. Countermeasures to falls on floors 256
C. Accidents on ramps 256
1. Walking on ramps 256
2. Causes of falls on ramps 257
3. Countermeasures to falls on ramps 257
D. Accidents on stairs 257
1. Walking on stairs 257
2. Types and causes of falls on stairs 257
3. Countermeasures to falls on stairs 257
E. Accidents on escalators 258
1. Operation of escalators 258
2. Types and causes of escalator accidents 258
3. Countermeasures to escalator accidents 258
17.2 "Man Under" Accidents 258
A. Reasons for people on the tracks 259
B. Causes and contributing factors of "man under" accidents 260
C. Train speed and collision avoidance 260
D. Perception-reaction capability of train operator 261
E. Countermeasures to "man under" accidents 261
17.3 Gap Falls 261
A. Human factors of gap falls 262
B. Countermeasures to gap falls 262
17.4 Door-Capture Incidents 262
A. Door design 262
B. Causes of door-capture incidents 263
C. Categories of door capture-incidents 263
D. Countermeasures to door-capture incidents 264
17.5 On-Train Falls 264
A. In-car falls 264
1. Causes of in-car falls 264
2. Countermeasures to in-car falls 264
B. Between-car falls 264
1. Causes of between-car falls 264
2. Countermeasures to between-car falls 265
C. Train-end falls 265
1. Causes of train-end falls 265
2. Countermeasures to train-end falls 265
17.6 Trains Operating with Open Doors 265
A. Causes of open-door accidents 265
B. Countermeasures to open-door accidents 266
17.7 Workplace Falls 266
A. Falls from locomotives 266
1. Causes of falls from locomotives 266
2. Countermeasures to falls from locomotives 267
B. Falls from freight cars 267
1. Types of falls from freight cars 267
2. Causes of falls from freight cars 267
3. Countermeasures to falls from freight cars 268
C. Ground falls in yards 268
1. Cases of ground falls in yards 268
2. Causes of ground falls in yards 268
Endnotes 269

Chapter 18: Train Accident Investigation and Analysis 271
18.1 Publications and References 271
A. Railroad industry and operations references 272
B. Equipment references 272
C. Track and grade crossing references 273
D. Accident reconstruction references 274
E. Regulatory references 274
F. Internet-based sources 274
18.2 Accident-Related Reports and Documents 274
A. Police accident reports 274
B. Railroad accident/incident reports 275
C. National Transportation Safety Board reports 275
D. Conductor's Delay Report 276
E. Witness statements and testimony 276
F. Photographs and video 276
G. Diagrams and measurements 277
H. Event data recorder printouts 277
I. Train Consist Report 277
J. Track profile and right-of-way and track map 278
K. Railroad timetable, orders, and special instructions 278
L. Railroad operating rules 278
M. Public utilities commission or transit authority regulations 278
N. Dispatcher's train sheet 278
O. Dispatcher's communications recordings 278
P. Rail-highway grade crossing accident and inventory data 279
Q. Weather data 279
R. Railroad maintenance and inspection records 279
18.3 Critical Accident-Related Points 279
A. Train crew initial perception point 279
B. Train brake application point 279
C. Motorist initial perception point 280
D. Motor vehicle brake application point 280
E. Impact position and point of impact 280
F. Final rest position 282
G. Point of derailment and first wheel to derail 282
18.4 Measuring and Documenting the Accident Site 282
A. Photographing the site 282
B. Reference point 283
C. Measurement and inspection checklist 283
D. Miscellaneous items 283
18.5 Train Accident Analysis 285
A. Timelines and time-position analyses 285
B. Train speed, time, and braking distance calculations 286
C. Collision avoidance and what-if scenarios 286
D. Evaluating inconsistencies in train size, speed, and braking distance 287
E. Slack action and rail vehicle impact analysis 288
F. Derailments 288
G. Computer simulation and programs 288
Endnotes 289

Part II: FELA and Railroad Litigation
William G. Jungbauer, Esq.
Introduction to Part II 293
Preliminary Research Sources 293

Chapter 19: What Railroad Workers and Their Families Must Know in Order to Protect Their Rights: The Do's and Don'ts 295

Chapter 20: Checklists and Procedures 299
20.1 Basic Checklist for Negligence Claims 299
A. Before filing suit 299
B. Filing suit 300
20.2 Federal Safety Appliance Act and Federal Locomotive Inspection Act Claims 300
20.3 Death Claim Checklist 301
20.4 Crossing Case Checklist 301
20.5 Deposing the Railroad Speed Tape Expert for Crossing Cases 301
20.6 Railroad Strategy in Severe and Catastrophic Injury Cases 302
20.7 Witness Statements Often Control the Ultimate Outcome of the Case 303
20.8 Legal Advising of Union Members 304
20.9 Questions Families Should Ask the Claims Agent 304
20.10 Questions to Ask Attorneys Desiring to Represent Injured Employees or Their Families 305

Chapter 21: Railroad Harassment of FELA Claimants and Witnesses 307
21.1 Railroad Harassment of Witnesses Is Illegal 307
21.2 Internal Disciplinary Hearings Are Used to Get a "Free Shot" at the Employee 309
21.3 Spoliation of Evidence must be Countered Aggressively 311
A. Identification of the problem 311
B. Overview of remedies 311
C. Discussion 311

Chapter 22: An Overview of FELA 317

Chapter 23: Distinguishing Characteristics of the FELA 321
23.1 Language of the Act, 45 U.S.C. § 51 321
23.2 Characteristics of the FELA 321
A. Liberal construction of FELAA 321
B. Federal law controls substantive issues 321
C. Jurisdiction in FELA cases 321
D. Venue of FELA cases 322
E. Statute of limitations 322
F. Federal and state procedural issues 323
23.3 Construction of FELA with Railway Labor Act (RLA) 323

Chapter 24: The FELA Negligence Claim 327
24.1 The Statutory Language 327
24.2 Distinguishing Characteristics 327
A. A pure comparative fault statute 327
B. No "fellow servant" doctrine 327
C. No assumption of risk 328
D. Contributory negligence does not bar recovery 328
E. An employee has a duty to use ordinary care for his or her safety 329
F. The burden of proof regarding contributory negligence is borne by railroad 329
G. The railroad has a nondelegable duty to provide its employees with a reasonably safe place to work 329
H. Causation 329
I. Foreseeability of harm 330
J. Employee's duty to mitigate damages 330
K. Mitigation of damages: Dealing with suspect job offers 331
L. FELA claimant is not entitled to workers' compensation 333
M. FELA Cases are non-removable 335
24.3 Occupational Diseases 335
A. Occupational hearing loss 335
B. Carpal tunnel syndrome 336
24.4 Damages under the FELA 336
24.5 Damages in a FELA Death Action 338
24.6 Calculating FELA Damages: Issues Relating to Benefits, Payroll Taxes and Collateral Sources 340
A.Introduction 340
B. Fringe benefits in FELA cases 340
C. Legal controversies about RRB benefits and taxes 341
D. Conclusion 343
Appendix: Legal Decisions Involving Railroad Retirement Board Benefits, Railroad Retirement Taxes and Collateral Source Determinations in Damages Calculations 343
References 346

Chapter 25: Railroad Safety Laws 347
25.1 Overview 347
25.2 Federal Safety Appliance Act (FSAA) 348
A. Statutory provisions 348
B. Construction and application 348
C. Couplers and misaligned drawbars 350
D. The Lisek decision: Requirement of a coupling attempt 351
E. The Hiles decision: Requirement of defective drawbar for FSAA violation 352
25.3 Federal Locomotive Inspection Act (LIA) 352
A. Statutory provisions 352
B. Construction and application 353
C. The "in use" requirement 354
D. Foreign substances 356
25.4 Federal Railroad Safety Act and Preemption and Preclusion 357

Chapter 26: The Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 359
26.1 General Provisions of the ADA 359
A. "Qualified individual with a disability" 359
B. "Reasonable accommodation" 360
C. "Undue hardship" 360
D. "Direct threat" 361
26.2 Who May Bring an ADA Action 361
26.3 Procedure for Filing a Claim under the ADA 361
A. Filing with the EEOC 361
B. Bringing an action in state or federal court 381
26.4 Remedies Available under the ADA 395
26.5 Problems Facing the Railroad Employee-ADA Claimant 395
A. Conflict between the ADA and collective bargaining agreements 395
B. Preemption and preclusion 396
26.6 Conclusion 398
Endnotes 398

Chapter 27: Third-Party Liability 401
27.1 Liability 401
A. The railroad 401
B. The industry 403
C. The railroad and industry's joint liability 404
27.2 Suing the Railroad and the Industry 405
27.3 Suing Van Companies 406
27.4 Settlement 406
A. The effect of releasing one defendant 406
B. Loan receipts 409
C. Guaranty agreements 410
D. Overview of settlements 410

Chapter 28: Grade-Crossing Cases 411
28.1 Overview 411
28.2 Railroad Negligence in Grade-Crossing Cases 412
28.3 Federal Preemption in Grade-Crossing Cases 412
28.4 The Easterwood Decision 414
A. Grade crossing warning devices claim 414
B. Train-speed claim 415
28.5 The Shanklin Decision 415
28.6 Decisions in the Wake of Easterwood 417
28.7 Pre-Easterwood Decisions 419
28.8 What is Left of State Law Claims after Easterwood and Shanklin? 419
A. Vegetation claims 419
B. Inadequate sight lines or sight distance 420
C. Crossing Design and maintenance 420

Chapter 29: Discovery 421
29.1 Interrogatories 421

Chapter 30: Sample Forms 463
30.1 Basic Pleading under the FELA 463
30.2 Motion Practice 464
A. Summary judgment (FELA negligence) 464
B. Summary judgment (FSAA) 471
C. Summary judgment (FLIA) 481

Chapter 31: FELA Compensation and Railroad Benefits 495
31.1 Medical Benefits 495
31.2 Sickness Benefits 495
31.3 Short-Term Disability Benefits 496
31.4 Long-Term Disability Benefits 496
31.5 Cash Advances 496
31.6 Wage Continuation 496

Chapter 32: FELA and Railroad Articles 497

Chapter 33: Lost Services in Railroad Wrongful Death Litigation 503
33.1 Introduction 503
33.2 The Conceptual Meaning of Nonmarket Services in Vreeland 504
33.3 Treatment of Nonmarket Services in Forensic Economics 505
33.4 Implications for Measurement of Personal Consumption and Maintenance 508
33.5 Conclusion 510
References 510

Chapter 34: Remote Control Operations 513

Table of Cases 515
About the Authors 521
Index 523

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